4.9.2.7 Cultural and Paleontological Resources

Prehistoric Resources. Approximately 6 percent of NTS has been inventoried for cultural resources including all lands managed through a Memorandum of Agreement with Nellis Air Force Base. Excluding sites in the Yucca Mountain project area, over 1,600 prehistoric sites have been recorded at NTS. Prehistoric site types identified on NTS include habitation sites with wood and brush structures, windbreaks, rock rings, and cleared areas; rockshelters; petroglyphs (rock art); hunting blinds; rock alignments; quarries; temporary camps; milling stations; roasting ovens or pits; water caches; and limited activity locations. Milling stations are especially prevalent near the Yucca Lake playa margins. Several prehistoric rockshelters have been identified on Hogback Ridge.

At Frenchman Flat, in which the proposed A/D site would be located, 99 archaeological sites have been identified to date, including 2 historic sites and 2 sites related to nuclear testing (NT DOE 1996c:4-190). Forty-nine of these sites have been determined to be NRHP eligible, and a historic district composed of structures related to the development of nuclear weapons has also been proposed. Cultural resources surveys were conducted around the A/D site in 1984. No significant archaeological sites were found.

The proposed NIF would be located in Area 22. Only three prehistoric sites have been identified in Area 22, or Mercury Valley, and none are NRHP eligible. An archaeological survey was conducted at the proposed location and several scatters of debris were identified on the surface. These are not considered eligible for the NRHP.

Historic Resources. Historic site types on NTS include mines and prospects, trash dumps, settlements, campsites, ranches, homesteads, developed spring heads, trails, and roads. Nuclear test site structures and associated debris, including instrumentation stands and temporary storage bunkers, are also located within NTS. The test site area at Frenchman Flat, which includes the remains of many of these structures, has been recommended to the SHPO as a Historic District. Excluding the Yucca Mountain project area, 63 historic sites, including 7 associated with nuclear testing, have been recorded. One historic site was identified in Mercury Valley, but is not NRHP eligible. The only site currently listed on the NRHP is Sedan Crater. The Crater, located in Yucca Flat, was created in 1962 as part of the Plowshare Program, whose aim was to identify peaceful uses for nuclear explosions. The Emigrant Trail used by the "49ers" that traverses the southwestern corner of NTS is considered NRHP eligible. Additional historic sites may occur on unsurveyed portions of NTS.

Native American Resources. At the time of European American contact, southern Nevada was inhabited by the Western Shoshone, the Southern Paiute, and the Owens Valley Paiute. Families lived in small groups from the spring through the fall. During winter, relatively stable villages of several families were established in relatively warm places, close to reserves of pine nuts, seeds, and dried meats.

Native American resources include burials, ceremonial sites, musical stones, medicine rocks, petroglyphs, and traditional use areas. Local plants important in traditional and religious activities include jimsonweed, juniper, greasewood, creosote, Indian tobacco, piñon pine, buckbush, and scrub oak. Concern has been expressed about the availability and accessibility of such resources. It is worth noting that many natural resources at NTS are viewed as cultural resources by Native Americans. As an example, sagebrush is used as a tool and for clothing and medicinal purposes. Both Mercury Valley and Frenchman Flat contain a wide variety of plants and animals significant to Native Americans.

Consultation with Native American cultural and religious leaders has been conducted for other projects at or near NTS to identify traditional cultural resources that may be affected by Federal actions, and to obtain Native American recommendations for mitigating potential adverse impacts on traditional cultural resources. DOE has established ongoing consultation with 17 Native American tribal organizations with cultural ties to NTS. According to these groups, no Native American resources have been identified in the proposed NIF location.

Paleontological Resources. The surface geology of NTS is characterized by alluvium-filled valleys surrounded by ranges composed of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks and Tertiary volcanic tuffs and lavas. The Pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic rocks at NTS represent relict deposits made in shallow water at the submerged edge of a continental platform which ran from Mexico to Alaska and existed throughout most of the Paleozoic. Although the Pre-Cambrian sedimentary deposits contain no fossils or only a few poorly preserved fossils, the Paleozoic marine limestones are moderately to abundantly fossiliferous. Marine fossils found in the same Paleozoic formations on Nellis Air Force Range, adjacent to NTS to the north, include trilobites, conodonts, ostracods, solitary and colonial corals, brachiopods, algae, gastropods, and archaic fish. These fossils, however, are relatively common and have low research potential.

Tertiary volcanic deposits are not expected to contain fossils; however the Late Pleistocene terrestrial vertebrate fossils of the Rancholabrean Land Mammal Age could be expected in the Quaternary deposits. The possibility of finding mammoth, horse, camel, and bison remains might be expected because such fossils have been found at Tule Springs, 56 km (34.8 mi) from the southern edge of NTS and in Nye Canyon. Fossils found at Tule Springs include bison, deer, a small donkey-like horse, camel, Columbia mammoth, ground sloth, giant jaguar, bobcat, coyote, muskrat, and a variety of rabbits, rodents, and birds. This paleontological assemblage has high research potential. Although Quaternary deposits with paleontological materials may occur on NTS, no known fossil localities have been recorded to date.

Other Pleistocene resources include pack rat middens, which are studied by scientists at the University of Nevada, Reno, the Desert Research Institute, and New Mexico Tech, to investigate paleoclimatic regimes. No paleontological resources are expected to exist within the area proposed for the NIF, as the geology in that area does not contain fossiliferous deposits.

North Las Vegas Facility

Although a historic site (Kyle Ranch) is located less than 1.6 km (1 mi) southwest of the proposed NIF location, no archaeological remains (prehistoric or historic) are likely to be present because of the heavy past disturbance of the surface and near-surface sediment (NT DOE 1996c:4-746). Lower lying deposits that are relatively undisturbed are too ancient to contain archaeological remains. No historic structures exist in the proposed NIF location. No Native American cultural resources have been identified at NLVF in the course of past consultation with potentially affected tribal organizations.

4.9.2.8 Socioeconomics

Socioeconomic characteristics addressed at NTS and NLVF include employment and regional economy, population, housing, and public finance. Statistics for employment and regional economy are presented for the regional economic area that encompasses 11 counties around NTS and NLVF in Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. Statistics for population, housing, and public finance are presented for the ROI, a two-county area in which 97 percent of all NTS employees reside: Clark County (82 percent) and Nye County (15 percent). The residential distribution of NLVF employees follows a similar pattern, with the vast majority of employees residing in these two counties. As a result, both DOE facilities occupy the same ROI and regional economic area. Figure 4.9.2.8-1 presents a map of the counties and selected cities that comprise the NTS and NLVF regional economic area and ROI. Supporting data are presented in appendix D.

Regional Economy Characteristics. Selected employment and economic statistics for the NTS and NLVF regional economic area are summarized in figure 4.9.2.8-2. The civilian labor force grew 64 percent between 1980 and 1990, an annual average of 6.4 percent. Total employment in the region was 587,533 in 1994. During 1994, unemployment in the regional economic area was 6.1 percent, comparable to state unemployment in Arizona (6.4 percent) and Nevada (6.2 percent), but higher than in Utah (3.7 percent). The 1993 regional economic area per capita income of $20,561 was almost 9 percent lower than Nevada's per capita income of $22,727, but significantly higher than the per capita income in Arizona ($18,085) and Utah ($16,354).

As shown in figure 4.9.2.8-2, the NTS regional economic area and Nevada have similar employment patterns. In both the region and the state, the service sector accounts for over 40 percent of the total employment. In Utah and Arizona, services account for about a third of employment, with manufacturing providing a greater source of employment in these states than in Nevada.

Population and Housing . The ROI population, which totalled 865,144 in 1992, increased by about 83 percent (6.9 percent annually) from the 1980 level, a rate of increase that exceeded the state annual population growth rate of about 5 percent during the same period. Some cities within the ROI grew at even faster rates; the city of Henderson, for example, increased at an average annual rate of over 20 percent between 1980 and 1992.

Increases in housing units averaged approximately 7 percent annually in the ROI between 1980 and 1990, greater than the approximately 3-percent annual increase for Nevada. The homeowner vacancy rate in the ROI averaged 3 percent in 1990, while the vacancy rate for rental units averaged 10 percent. Both rates were comparable to Nevada's vacancy rates. Population and housing statistics for the ROI are summarized in figure 4.9.2.8-3.

Public Finance. Financial characteristics of the local jurisdictions in the NTS ROI that are most likely to be affected by the proposed action are presented in this section. The data reflect total revenues and expenditures of each jurisdiction's general fund, special revenue funds, and, as applicable, debt service, capital project, and expendable trust funds. School district boundaries may or may not coincide with county or city boundaries, but the districts are presented under the county where they primarily provide services. Major revenue and expenditure fund categories for counties, cities, and school districts are presented in appendix tables D.2.3-14 and D.2.3-15.Figure 4.9.2.8-4 summarizes 1994 local government revenues and expenditures. Fund balances, which are dollars carried over from previous years, are not included in figure 4.9.2.8-4. All jurisdictions assessed had positive fund balances.

4.9.2.9 Radiation and Hazardous Chemical Environment

The following section provides a description of the radiation and hazardous chemical environments at NTS and NLVF. Also included are discussions of health effects studies, emergency preparedness considerations, and an accident history.

Radiation Environment. Major sources of background radiation exposure to individuals in the vicinity of NTS are shown in table 4.9.2.9-1. All annual doses to individuals from background radiation are expected to remain constant over time. The total dose to the population changes as population size changes. Background radiation doses are unrelated to NTS operations.

Table 4.9.2.9-1.-- Sources of Radiation Exposure to Individuals in the Vicinity, Unrelated to Nevada Test Site Operations

Releases of radionuclides to the environment from NTS operations provide another source of radiation exposure to individuals in the vicinity of NTS. The radionuclides and quantities released from NTS operations in 1993 are listed in the U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office Annual Site Environment Report-1993 (DOE/NV/11432-123). The doses to the public resulting from these releases are presented in table 4.9.2.9-2. These doses fall within radiological limits (DOE Order 5400.5) and are small in comparison to background radiation. The releases listed in the 1993 report were used in the development of the reference environment's (No Action) radiological releases at NTS in 2005 (section 4.9.3.9).

Table 4.9.2.9-2.--Doses to the General Public from Normal Operation at Nevada Test Site, 1993 (Committed Effective Dose Equivalent)

Based on a dose-to-risk conversion factor of 500 cancer deaths per 1 million person-rem (5x10-4 fatal cancers per person-rem) to the public (appendix E), the fatal cancer risk to the maximally exposed member of the public due to radiological releases from NTS operations in 1993 is estimated to be 2.4x10-9. That is, the estimated probability of this person dying of cancer at some point in the future from radiation exposure associated with 1 year of NTS operations is about 2 chances in 1 billion. (Note that it takes several to many years from the time of exposure to radiation for a cancer to manifest itself.)

Based on the same conversion factor, 6.0x10-6 excess fatal cancers are projected in the population living within 80 km (50 mi) of NTS from normal operation in 1993. To place this number into perspective, it can be compared with the number of fatal cancers expected in this population from all causes. The 1990 mortality rate associated with cancer for the entire U.S. population was 0.2 percent per year (Almanac 1993a:839). Based on this national rate, the number of fatal cancers from all causes expected during 1993 in the population living within 80 km (50 mi) of NTS was 44. This number of expected fatal cancers is much higher than the estimated 6.0x10-6 fatal cancers that could have resulted from NTS operations in 1993.

Workers at NTS receive the same dose as the general public from background radiation, but also receive an additional dose from working in the facilities. Table 4.9.2.9-3 includes the average, maximum, and total occupational doses to NTS workers from operations in 1992. These doses fall within radiological limits (10 CFR 835). Based on a dose-to-risk conversion factor of 400 fatal cancers per 1 million person-rem (4x10-4 fatal cancers per person-rem) among workers (appendix E), the number of excess fatal cancers to NTS workers from operations in 1992 is estimated to be 0.0008.

A more detailed presentation of the radiation environment, including background exposures and radiological releases and doses, is presented in the U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations Office Annual Site Environment Report-1993 (DOE/NV/11432-123). The concentrations of radioactivity in various environmental media (e.g., air and water) and in animal tissue in the site region (onsite and offsite) are also presented in the same reference.

Table 4.9.2.9-3.--Doses to the Onsite Worker from Normal Operation at Nevada Test Site, 1992

Chemical Environment. The background chemical environment important to human health consists of the atmosphere, which may contain hazardous chemicals that can be inhaled; drinking water, which may contain hazardous chemicals that can be ingested; and other environmental media with which people may come in contact (e.g., soil through direct contact or via the food pathway). The baseline data for assessing potential health impacts from the chemical environment are those presented in sections 4.9.2.3 and 4.9.2.4.

Adverse health impacts to the public can be minimized through administrative and design controls to decrease hazardous chemical releases to the environment and to achieve compliance with permit requirements. The effectiveness of these controls is verified through the use of monitoring information and inspection of mitigation measures. Health impacts to the public may occur during normal operations at NTS via inhalation of air containing hazardous chemicals released to the atmosphere by NTS operations. Risks to public health from ingestion of contaminated drinking water or direct exposure are also potential pathways.

Baseline air emission concentrations for hazardous air pollutants and their applicable standards are presented in section 4.9.2.3. These concentrations are estimates of the highest existing offsite concentrations and represent the highest concentrations to which members of the public could be exposed. These concentrations are compared with applicable guidelines and regulations. Information about estimating health impacts from hazardous chemicals is presented in appendix E.

Exposure pathways to NTS workers during normal operation may include inhaling the workplace atmosphere, drinking NTS potable water, and possible other contact with hazardous materials associated with work assignments. The potential for health impacts varies from facility to facility and from worker to worker, and available information is not sufficient to allow a meaningful estimation and summation of these impacts. However, workers are protected from hazards specific to the workplace through appropriate training, protective equipment, monitoring, and management controls. NTS workers are also protected by adherence to OSHA and EPA occupational standards that limit atmospheric and drinking water concentrations of potentially hazardous chemicals. Appropriate monitoring, which reflects the frequency and amounts of chemicals utilized in the operation processes, ensures that these standards are not exceeded. Additionally, DOE requirements ensure that conditions in the workplace are as free as possible from recognized hazards that cause or are likely to cause illness or physical harm. Therefore, worker health conditions at NTS are expected to be substantially better than required by standards.

Health Effects Studies. Several epidemiological studies have been conducted to investigate possible adverse health effects of low-level radioactive fallout on residents of Nevada and Utah. A mortality study of Utah children conducted by Lyon et al. investigated the relationship between childhood leukemia and radioactive fallout and found a significant excess of leukemia among children who died during the high fallout period (between 1951 and 1958) compared to those who died during the low fallout periods (between 1944 and 1950 and between 1959 and 1975). A followup to the Lyon et al. study conducted by Beck and Krey found that bone doses of southern Utah residents were too low to account for the excess leukemia deaths.

A nonstatistically significant excess of thyroid neoplasm was reported among children living near the nuclear testing sites (Utah/Nevada) when compared to a group living in Arizona (HP 1990c:739-746).

An excess number of leukemia cases were observed among men who participated in military maneuvers in August 1957. No excess in "total cancers" was observed but four cases of polycythemia vera were reported where 0.2 were expected (JAMA 1984a:662-664). For a more detailed description of the studies and the findings, refer to appendix section E.4.7.

Accident History. Nuclear testing began at NTS in 1951. There were some 100 atmospheric nuclear explosions before the Limited Test Ban Treaty was implemented in 1973. Since then, all nuclear tests have been conducted underground.

Since 1970, there have been 126 nuclear tests that released approximately 54,000 Ci (2,000 TBq) of radioactivity to the atmosphere. Of this amount, 11,500 Ci (430 TBq) were accidental due to containment failure (massive releases or seeps) and late-time seeps. (Seeps are small releases after a test when gases diffuse through pore spaces of the overlying rock.) The remaining 42,500 Ci (1,600 TBq) were operational releases. From the perspective of human health risk, if the same person had been standing at the boundary of NTS in the area of maximum concentration of radioactivity for every test since 1970, that person's total exposure would be equivalent to 32 extra minutes of normal background exposure, or the equivalent of one-thousandth of a single chest x ray (OTA 1989a).

Emergency Preparedness. Each DOE site has established an emergency management program that would be activated in the event of an accident. This program has been developed and maintained to ensure adequate response for most accident conditions and to provide response efforts for accidents not specifically considered. The emergency management program incorporates activities associated with emergency planning, preparedness, and response. The NTS Emergency Preparedness Plan is designed to minimize or mitigate the impact of any emergency upon the health and safety of employees and the public. The plan integrates all emergency planning into a single entity to minimize overlap and duplication and to ensure proper responses to emergencies not covered by a plan or directive. The manager of the Nevada Operations Office has the responsibility to manage, counter, and recover from an emergency occurring at NTS.

The plan provides for identification and notification of personnel for any emergency that may develop during operational and nonoperational hours. The Nevada Operations Office receives warnings, weather advisories, and any other communications that provide advance warning of a possible emergency. The plan is based upon current Nevada Operations Office vulnerability assessments, resources, and capabilities regarding emergency preparedness.

North Las Vegas Facility

NLVF provides calibration services using specialized radiation fields for a variety of instrument test packages in support of DOE Nevada operations. A detailed discussion of the radiation environment, including background, radiological releases, and doses to members of the public are presented in the U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Field Office Annual Site Environmental Report-1993 (DOE/NV/11432-123, September 1994). The concentrations of radioactivity in various environmental media (i.e., air, water, and soil) in the site region and the dose to onsite workers at NLVF are also presented in that reference.

Table 4.9.2.9-4.--Annual Doses to the General Public and Onsite Workers from Normal Operation at North Las Vegas Facility, 1993

Calculated radiological doses are used to estimate the potential health impacts to the public and onsite workers at NLVF from any releases of radioactivity. Small atmospheric releases occurred on July 12 and August 14, 1995. The dose to a maximally exposed individual and to the surrounding population from these releases is expected to be negligible. The actual dose to these receptors will be quantified upon receipt of monitoring data. The annual doses to workers and the public are summarized in table 4.9.2.9-4; corresponding health risks are also presented in the table. These doses are in addition to those from natural background radiation, consumer products, and medical sources, which total about 360 mrem/yr. The onsite worker doses are within regulatory limits. Background radiation doses are unrelated to NLVF operations.

Chemical Environment. Exposure pathways to NLVF workers during normal operation may include inhaling the workplace atmosphere, drinking NLVF potable water, and possible other contact with hazardous materials associated with work assignments. The potential for health impacts varies from facility to facility and from worker to worker, and available information is not sufficient to allow a meaningful estimation and summation of these impacts. However, workers are protected from hazards specific to the workplace through appropriate training, protective equipment, monitoring, and management controls. NLVF workers are also protected by adherence to OSHA and EPA occupational standards that limit atmospheric and drinking water concentrations of potentially hazardous chemicals. Appropriate monitoring, which reflects the frequency and amounts of chemicals utilized in the operation processes, ensures that these standards are not exceeded. The maximum daily quantities of NIF-related hazardous materials stored at NLVF are presented in appendix table I.4.4.1.7.2-1. NLVF stores and uses few hazardous materials in amounts greater than the threshold planning quantities that require reporting under 40 CFR 370 (NT DOE 1995g).

4.9.2.10 Waste Management

This section outlines the major environmental regulatory structure and ongoing waste management activities for NTS, including NLVF. A more detailed discussion of the ongoing waste management operations is provided in appendix section H.2.8.

DOE is working with Federal and state regulatory authorities to address compliance and cleanup obligations arising from its past operations at NTS. DOE is engaged in several activities to bring its operations into full regulatory compliance. These activities are set forth in negotiated agreements that contain schedules for achieving compliance with applicable requirements and financial penalties for nonachievement of agreed upon milestones. These agreements have been reviewed to assure the proposed actions are allowable under the terms of these agreements.

DOE has decided that underground testing areas should be governed pursuant to the provisions of CERCLA. Preliminary assessment/site investigation reports and a hazardous ranking system package were provided to EPA for their use in determining whether NTS should be included on the NPL. In May 1993, the state of Nevada issued a letter to DOE indicating it did not appear that EPA would make a decision on the NPL status of NTS in the near future.

DOE has published the Nevada Test Site Treatment Plan and Federal Facility Compliance Act consent order addressing environmental restoration and waste management on NTS. A mutual consent agreement between the state of Nevada and DOE, updated in June 1995, permits NTS to use the available capacity of the TRU waste storage pad for the storage of onsite generated mixed LLW that does not meet the land disposal provisions of RCRA.

The Nevada Operations Office completed a waste minimization plan for NTS in 1991 and created an organization whose mission is to promote waste minimization and pollution prevention and to ensure compliance with DOE requirements. NTS currently generates waste from ongoing operations and remediation associated with past activities and receives waste from other DOE facilities. NTS manages the following waste categories: TRU, LLW, mixed, hazardous, and nonhazardous. A discussion of the waste management operations associated with each of these categories follows.

Transuranic Waste. Although NTS does not currently generate any TRU wastes, from 1974 to 1990,< 612 m3 (800 yd3 ) of mixed TRU waste was received from LLNL and is stored on a 8,300-m2 (89,300-ft2 ) asphalt storage pad at Area 5 of NTS (NT REECO 1995a:21). DOE and the State of Nevada signed a Settlement Agreement on July 23, 1992, allowing the Nevada Operations Office to retain this inventory of mixed TRU waste subject to an appropriate permitting process. None of these waste packages is WIPP certified. They will have to be certified before shipment to WIPP. These wastes have been moved to a 1,995-m2 (21,470-ft2 ) polyvinyl chloride-coated polyester fabric covered building for storage until WIPP is determined to be a suitable disposal facility, pursuant to the requirements of 40 CFR 191 and 40 CFR 268, or until another suitable repository is found (NT DOE 1996b:30-38). NTS has areas of plutonium-contaminated soil, for which treatment technology is being developed. This activity may produce additional volumes of TRU or mixed TRU waste. Limited quantities of TRU waste were also disposed of in trench 4C and in greater confinement units in Area 5.

Low-Level Waste. In 1993, NTS generated approximately 178m 3 (233 yd3 ) of solid LLW onsite (NT DOE 1994f:4). LLW has been generated and disposed of in eight areas at NTS, but currently only Areas 3 and 5 are active for disposal. Bulk waste is disposed of in Area 3, and packaged classified and unclassified waste is disposed of in Area 5. Disposal of onsite waste began in 1971, and in 1978 operations expanded to receive wastes generated offsite. In 1995, 15 generators shipped LLW to NTS for disposal. An additional nine generators are applying for or awaiting approval (NT DOE 1996c:4-61, 4-62). As of October 1994, approximately 301,667 m3 (394,600 yd3 ) of LLW in Area 3 (NT DOE 1996c:4-43) and as of December 1993 approximately 167,400 m3 (218,900 yd3 ) of LLW in Area 5 (NT REECO 1994a:12) have been disposed of. Standard shallow land burial techniques have been employed.

Mixed Low-Level Waste. In 1993, NTS did not generate any mixed waste. Disposal of mixed waste received from the Rocky Flats Environmental Technology Site has taken place at NTS. Mixed waste disposal at NTS ceased, pending issuance by the state of Nevada of a RCRA Part B Permit for NTS. environmental restoration at NTS could generate additional volumes of mixed waste which would require some form of treatment. A liquid waste treatment system is being designed to process these mixed wastes. Mixed waste generated in the state of Nevada that meets land disposal restrictions of RCRA can be disposed of in the Area 5 mixed waste disposal unit, Pit 3. Pit 3 currently has an inventory of 8,024 m3 (10,500 yd3) (NT DOE 1996c:4-46). Other units in Areas 3 and 5 where mixed waste was previously disposed of will be closed in conformance with RCRA. The Nevada Division of Environmental Protection provides RCRA oversight for NTS. The 1992 revised RCRA Part B Permit application to include a separate mixed waste storage and disposal unit at NTS, in accordance with the provisions of the Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992, has been submitted to the state of Nevada. A mutual consent agreement between the state of Nevada and DOE permits the storage of mixed LLW that do not meet RCRA land disposal restrictions on the TRU waste storage pads. DOE has published the NTS Site Treatment Plan and Federal Facility Compliance Act Consent Order that establishes the basis for treatment, storage and disposal of mixed LLW at NTS.

Hazardous Waste. For 1993, NTS generated approximately 34.6 m3 (45 yd3 ) of hazardous wastes (NT DOE 1994f:4). Hazardous wastes result from ongoing operations that utilize solvents, lubricants, fuel, lead, metals, motor oil, and acids. Hazardous wastes are accumulated at satellite areas, stored at the Area 5 RCRA-permitted hazardous waste storage unit, and shipped offsite by truck to a commercial RCRA-permitted facility using DOT-approved transporters. Additional accumulation areas and new equipment are planned to prevent the possibility of cross contamination with radioactive wastes (creating mixed wastes) in handling these materials. PCB-contaminated waste is accumulated and stored in the Area 6 TSCA waste accumulation unit. Accumulated PCB waste is shipped offsite to a commercial TSCA-permitted treatment, storage, and disposal facility. Hazardous waste generation is decreasing as the result of an aggressive waste minimization program, and will substantially decrease in the future due to the present moratorium on nuclear testing.

NLVF generated about 8.2 m3 (2,180 gal) of liquid and 3.5 m3 (4.6 yd3 ) of solid hazardous wastes in 1994. All hazardous wastes are treated, stored, or disposed of offsite at RCRA-permitted facilities. Spills or releases of hazardous materials have historically been minor in nature and have been promptly cleaned up upon discovery.

A Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention Awareness Implementation Plan submitted to DOE on December 20, 1991, is in place for NLVF. A formalized system of waste minimization was developed through the implementation of EG&G/EM Policy No. 31-70, Waste Minimization and Pollution Prevention, and Standard Operating Procedure 31-006.A, Hazardous Waste Minimization Plan. Hazardous waste generation from various processes has already been reduced through product substitution or by permanently discontinuing the hazardous waste generating process.

There are no underground storage tanks for hazardous or petroleum substances at NLVF. All aboveground tanks employ either secondary containment or a double-walled tank with continuous leak detection. There are no hazardous waste treatment, storage, or disposal facilities requiring state or Federal permits at NLVF (NT DOE 1995g).

Nonhazardous Waste. Nonhazardous sanitary wastes are expected to be generated at the current rates for several years, then decline assuming the present moratorium on underground weapons testing continues. Liquid nonhazardous wastes are disposed of in septic tanks, sumps, or in ponds. Solid wastes are disposed of in landfills at various locations on the site. Recycling of paper, metals, glass, plastics, and cardboard has already resulted in some decreases in waste quantities. NTS generated 7,170 t (7,900 tons) of solid sanitary wastes in 1993 (NT DOE 1994f:4). Solid waste landfills located in Areas 6, 9, and 23 are in use for the disposal of solid nonhazardous wastes.

The Area 6 landfill is a Class III landfill that accepts hydrocarbon-burdened soil and debris. The Area 9 landfill is a Class II landfill because it accepts less than 18 t (20 tons) of solid waste per day. The Area 9 landfill is allowed to receive all types of nonhazardous solid waste, excluding radioactive waste, free liquids, and asbestos. Its current capacity is approximately 993,883 m3 (1.3 million yd3 ). Due to changes in state regulatory requirements, the Area 9 landfill will undergo partial closure and reopen as a Class III construction and demolition landfill. The Area 23 landfill receives all types of nonhazardous solid waste with nonpathogenic hospital waste, dead animals, and asbestos-containing materials being buried in separate cells that are identified by concrete markers. The current capacity is approximately 449,541 m3 (588,000 yd3 ). The Area 23 landfill is scheduled to remain in operation as a Class II landfill after modification to comply with the new state regulations (NT DOE 1996c:4-47).

Policies and procedures are in place at NLVF that promote recycling and resource recovery. Physical and administrative measures implemented at NLVF minimize or prevent the introduction of pollutants into stormwater. Stormwater from the NLVF site is discharged by concentrated conveyance or sheet flow onto Losee Road. Industrial wastewater and sanitary sewage from NLVF are discharged into city of North Las Vegas sewer lines, which are connected to the city of Las Vegas publicly owned treatment works. The publicly owned treatment works discharges treated wastewater directly into Lake Mead under a NPDES permit issued by the Nevada Division of Environmental Protection. NLVF discharges an average of 147,303 L (38,888 gal) of wastewater per day into the publicly owned treatment works, with a peak maximum of 369,318 L (97,000 gal) of wastewater per day. Approximately 32 to 35 percent of the total wastewater originates from industrial processes, while the remaining 65 percent is predominantly sanitary wastes. Wastewater quality historically has been in compliance with permit conditions established by the city of North Las Vegas to protect the publicly owned treatment works treatment processes and ultimately the water quality in Lake Mead (NT DOE 1995g).

1 Federal and state standard.

2 No monitoring data available; baseline concentration assumed less than applicable standard.

3 It is assumed that particulate matter data are TSP data.

4 State standard. Source: 40 CFR 50; NT REECO 1990a; NV DCNR 1995a.

5 For short-term standards, baseline concentration is highest second highest concentration for year.

6 Federal standard (40 CFR 50).

7 No monitoring data available; baseline concentration assumed less than applicable standard.

8 County standard.

9 State standard. Source: ANL 1995b; NT County 1993a; NT County 1995c:1.

10 For comparison only.

11 National Primary DrinkingWater Regulations (40 CFR 141).

12 Proposed National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Radionuclides (56 FR 33050). ^d DOE's Derived Concentration Guides for water (DOE Order 5400.5). Values are based on a committed effective dose equivalent of 100 mrem per year; however, because the drinking water maximum contaminant level is based on 4 mrem per year, the number listed is 4 percent of the Derived Concentration Guides. ^e Below laboratory detection limit. ^f National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (40 CFR 143). Note: NA - not applicable. Source: NT DOE 1994b.

13 Derived from information given in EPA 1981b.

14 NCRP 1987a.

15 The standards for individuals are given in DOE Order 5400.5. As discussed in that order, the 10 mrem/yr limit from airborne emissions is required by the CAA, the 4 mrem/yr limit is required by the SDWA, and the total dose of 100 mrem/yr is the limit from all pathways combined. The 100 person-rem value for the population is given in proposed 10 CFR 834 (58 FR 16268).

16 In 1993, this population was approximately 21,750.

17 Obtained by dividing the population dose by the number of people living within 80 km (50 mi) of the site.

18 10 CFR 835. DOE's goal is to maintain radiological exposure as low as reasonably achievable. NT DOE 1994b.

19 DOE 1993n:7. The number of badged workers in 1992 was approximately 780.

20 The regulatory limits for individuals are given in DOE Order 5400.5. The 10 mrem/yr limit from airborne emissions is required by the CAA. The 4 mrem/yr limit is required by the SDWA, and the total dose of 100 mrem/yr is the limit from all pathways combined. The regulatory limit for workers is 5,000 mrem (10 CFR 835).

21 Based on latent fatal cancer risk factors of 5x10^-4 /mrem for individuals, 5x10-4 /person-rem for population, and 4x10^-4 /mrem for workers (ICRP 1991a).

22 Two very small atmospheric releases occurred on July 12 and August 14, 1995. Dose to any offsite individual is expected to be a fraction of a mrem (monitoring data is not yet available from all stations).

23 No regulatory limits exist for population doses.

24 NA - not applicable; worker doses were estimated on the basis of readings from monitoring devices called thermoluminescent dosimeters.

25 The number of badged workers in 1994 was approximately seven. Source: NTS 1995a:5.