4.6 Los Alamos National Laboratory

LANL was established in 1943 and currently occupies approximately 11,300 ha (28,000 acres) near Los Alamos, NM, in support of missions as discussed in section 3.2.6. The DOE property boundaries for the site are illustrated in figure 4.6-1, and the technical areas (TA)s are illustrated in figure 4.6-2.

4.6.1 Description of Alternatives

There are no facilities at LANL that would be phased out as a result of any of the proposed alternatives discussed in this PEIS.

No Action. LANL would continue to perform the missions described in section 3.2.6.

Stockpile Management Alternatives. The pit fabrication and intrusive and nonintrusive modification pit reuse missions (referred to hereafter as pit fabrication), the secondary and case fabrication mission, the HE fabrication mission, and a portion of the nonnuclear fabrication mission could be located at LANL. The HE fabrication mission could also be shared with LLNL, and the nonnuclear fabrication mission could be shared with SNL and LLNL.

Stockpile Stewardship Alternatives. The proposed Atlas Facility would be located at LANL and the proposed National Ignition Facility (NIF) could be located at LANL.

4.6.2 Affected Environment

The following sections describe the affected environment at LANL for land resources, air quality, water resources, geology and soils, biotic resources, cultural and paleontological resources, and socioeconomics. In addition, the infrastructure, radiation and hazardous chemical environment, and waste management conditions at LANL are described.

4.6.2.1 Land Resources

LANL is located in north-central New Mexico, 97 km (60 mi) north-northeast of Albuquerque, 40 km (25 mi) northwest of Santa Fe, and 32 km (20 mi) southwest of Española in Los Alamos and Santa Fe Counties. The associated communities of Los Alamos and White Rock are in Los Alamos County. Figure 4.6-1 shows the geographical location of LANL. The 11,300-ha (28,000-acre) LANL site and adjacent communities are situated on the Pajarito Plateau, which consists of a series of finger-like mesas separated by deep canyons that run from the Jemez Mountains on the west toward the Rio Grande Valley on the east. Mesa tops range in elevation from approximately 2,400 m (7,800 ft) on the west to about 1,900 m (6,200 ft) on the east (LANL 1994a: II-1, II-2).

The developed acreage of LANL consists of 30 active TAs (see figure 4.6-2). The TAs potentially affected by the program are identified in figure 4.6-2. These TAs consist of laboratory facilities and support infrastructure. They account for only a small portion of the total land area at LANL. Most of LANL is undeveloped to provide security, safety, and expansion possibilities for future mission requirements. There are no agricultural activities present at LANL nor are there any prime farmlands. In 1977, DOE designated LANL as a National Environmental Research Park, which is used by the national scientific community as an outdoor laboratory to study the impacts of human activities on the pinyon-juniper woodland ecosystems (DOE 1985a:3,21).

Most developments within Los Alamos County are confined to mesa tops. Generalized land uses are shown in figure 4.6.2.1-1. The surrounding land is largely undeveloped with large tracts north, west, and south of the LANL site administered by the U.S. Forest Service (Santa Fe National Forest), the National Park Service (Bandelier National Monument), and Los Alamos County. The San Ildefonso Pueblo borders the LANL site to the east (LANL 1994a: II-1, II-2). The closest offsite residences to LANL are approximately 3 m (10 ft) from the northern boundary.

4.6.2.2 Site Infrastructure

Section 3.2.6 describes the current missions at LANL. To support these missions an infrastructure exists as shown in table 4.6.2.2-1.

Table 4.6.2.2-1.-- Baseline Characteristics for Los Alamos National Laboratory

4.6.2.3 Air Quality

The discussion of existing air quality includes a review of the meteorology and climatology in the vicinity of LANL. More detailed discussions of the air quality methodologies, input data, and atmospheric dispersion characteristics are presented in appendix section B.3.6.

Meteorology and Climatology. Los Alamos has a semiarid, temperate mountain climate. The climate averages for atmospheric variables such as temperature, pressure, moisture, and precipitation are based on observations made at the TA-59 LANL weather station from 1961 through 1993. The meteorological conditions described here are representative of conditions on the Pajarito Plateau at an elevation of approximately 2,250 m (7,400 ft) above sea level (LANL 1995s: II-8). In July, the average daily high temperature is 27.2 °C (81 °F), and the average nighttime low temperature is 12.8 °C (55 °F). The average January daily high is 4.4 °C (40 °F), and the average nighttime low is -8.3 °C (17 °F). The highest recorded temperature is 35 °C (95 °F), and the lowest recorded temperature is -27.8 °C (-18 °F). The large daily range in temperature of approximately 13 °C (23 °F) results from the site's relatively high elevation and dry, clear atmosphere, which allows high insolation during the day and rapid radiative losses at night (LANL 1995s: II-8).

The average annual precipitation is 47.6 cm (18.7 in) but is quite variable from year to year. The lowest recorded annual precipitation is 17.3 cm (6.8 in), and the highest is 77 cm (30.3 in). The maximum precipitation recorded for a 24-hour period is 8.8 cm (3.5 in) (LANL 1995s:II-11.) Because of the eastward slope of the terrain, there is a large east-to-west gradient in precipitation across the plateau. White Rock often receives about 13 cm (5 in) less annual precipitation than the TA-59 weather station, and the eastern flanks of the Jemez Mountains often receive about 13 cm (5 in) more (LANL 1994a:II-11).

Los Alamos winds are generally light, averaging 2.8 m/s (6.3 mph). Strong winds are most frequent during the spring when peak gusts often exceed 22 m/s (50 mph). The highest recorded wind gust was 34.4 m/s (77 mph). The semiarid climate promotes strong surface heating by day and strong radiative cooling by night. Because the terrain is complex, heating and cooling rates are uneven over the LANL area, which results in local thermally generated winds (LANL 1995s:II-11).

Ambient Air Quality. LANL is located within the New Mexico Intrastate AQCR 157. None of the areas within LANL and its surrounding counties are designated as nonattainment areas with respect to any of the NAAQS (40 CFR 81.332). A nonattainment area is an area that has air quality worse than designated by NAAQS for one or more criteria pollutants. Applicable NAAQS and New Mexico State ambient air quality standards are presented in appendix table B.3.1-1.

The criteria pollutants--nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide--make up approximately 79 percent of the stationary source emissions at LANL. The source of these criteria pollutants is combustion in power plants, steam plants, asphalt plants, and local space heaters. Toxic and other hazardous pollutants represent the remaining 21 percent of emissions from stationary sources at LANL. These emissions are generated by equipment surface cleaning, coating processes, and acid baths, and include gases, vapors, metal dusts, and miscellaneous emissions such as wood dust, hazardous gases, and plastics (LANL 1994a:VI-3, VII-1).

One Prevention of Significant Deterioration Class I Area, the Bandelier National Monument's Wilderness Study Area, borders LANL to the south. To date, LANL has not been subject to Prevention of Significant Deterioration requirements (LANL 1993b:III-20).

Ambient concentration limits for hazardous/toxic air pollutants (to be used by the state as one of the criteria in evaluating construction permit applications for a new emission source) have been approved by the New Mexico Environmental Improvement Board. The estimated 2005 No Action annual emission rates from LANL facilities are listed in appendix table B.3.6-1. Estimates of maximum ground-level concentrations at or beyond the LANL boundary are listed in table 4.6.2.3-1. Concentrations of criteria and hazardous/toxic air pollutants are in compliance with applicable guidelines and regulations. The hazardous/toxic air pollutant limits are one-hundredth of the recognized occupational exposure levels (e.g., 8-hour time-weighted threshold limit values).

Table 4.6.2.3-1 presents the baseline ambient air concentrations for criteria pollutants for 1992 and other pollutants of concern for 1990 at LANL. As shown in the table, baseline concentrations are in compliance with applicable guidelines and regulations.

4.6.2.4 Water Resources

This section describes the surface and groundwater resources at LANL.

Surface Water. The Rio Grande is the major surface water feature in north-central New Mexico. All surface water drainage and groundwater discharge from the Pajarito Plateau ultimately arrives at the Rio Grande. The Rio Grande at Otowi, just east of Los Alamos, has a drainage area of 37,037 square kilometers (km2) (14,300 square miles [mi²]) in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico (DOE 1995hh:4-26).

The major canyons that contain reaches of ephemeral streams inside LANL are Pajarito, Water, Ancho, and Chaquehui Canyons (figure 4.6.2.4-1) (DOE 1995hh:4-26).

Ephemeral streams in the lower portions of Ancho and Chaquehui Canyons extend to the Rio Grande without being depleted. In lower Water Canyon, the ephemeral stream is very short and does not extend to the Rio Grande. In Pajarito Canyon, Homestead Spring feeds an ephemeral stream 2- to 3-miles long (DOE 1995hh:4-26).

Springs between 2,408- and 2,713-m (7,900- and 8,900-ft) elevation on the eastern slope of the Jemez Mountains supply base flow throughout the year to the upper reaches of Cañon de Valle, Los Alamos, Pajarito, and Water Canyons. These springs discharge water perched in the Bandelier Tuff and Tschicoma Formation at rates from 0.0001 to 0.0085 m3/s (0.0035 to 0.30 ft3/s). The volume of flow from the springs is insufficient to maintain surface flow within more than the western third of the canyons before it is depleted by evaporation, transpiration, and infiltration (DOE 1995hh:4-26).

Eleven drainage areas, with a total area of 212 km2 (82 mi2) pass through the eastern boundary of LANL. Runoff from heavy thunderstorms and heavy snowmelt reaches the Rio Grande several times a year from some drainages. Los Alamos, Pajarito, and Water Canyons have drainage areas greater than 26 km2 (10 mi2). Pueblo Canyon has a drainage area of 21 km2 (8 mi2), while all others have less than 13 km2 (5 mi2). The overall flood risk to LANL is low because nearly all the structures are located on the mesa tops, from which runoff drains rapidly into the deep canyons (DOE 1995hh:4-26). The hydrological features at LANL are depicted in figure 4.6.2.4-1. No surface water is withdrawn at LANL for either drinking water or facility operations (DOE 1993j:4-76).

Los Alamos, Sandia, and Mortandad Canyons currently receive treated industrial or sanitary effluent. Pueblo Canyon does not receive LANL effluents. Surface waters in these canyons are not a source of municipal, industrial, or agricultural water supply. Several times during the year heavy precipitation or snowmelt would cause waters from Pueblo, Los Alamos, or Sandia Canyons to extend beyond LANL boundaries and reach the Rio Grande (LANL 1995s:2-7).

In Mortandad Canyon, no surface runoff to LANL's boundary has occurred since studies were initiated in 1960. Pueblo Canyon received both untreated and treated industrial effluents from 1944 to 1964. It currently receives treated sanitary effluents from Los Alamos County treatment plants in its upper and middle reaches (DOE 1993j:4-76).

Existing wastewater generation from LANL is approximately 693 MLY (183 MGY) (DOE 1993j:4-76). Permitted effluent discharges at LANL emerge from 2 sanitary wastewater treatment facilities and 130 industrial outfalls. These outfalls include power plant discharges (1 outfall), boiler blowdown (2 outfalls), treated cooling water (38 outfalls), noncontact cooling wastewater (51 outfalls), radioactive waste treatment plant (1 outfall), HE wastewater (21 outfalls), photographic laboratory rinse wastewater (13 outfalls), printed circuit board process wastewater (1 outfall), and sanitary wastewater (2 outfalls) (LANL 1995s:D-3).

Surface Water Quality. The 1993 surface water quality monitoring results for the five onsite canyons are presented in table 4.6.2.4-1. The overall compliance for sanitary and industrial discharges during 1993 was 100 percent and 99.1 percent, respectively.

Table 4.6.2.4-1.-- Surface Water Quality Monitoring at Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992

Water Rights and Permits. Water rights in New Mexico fall under the Doctrine of Prior Appropriations. Under this doctrine, the user who first appropriated water for a beneficial use has priority to use available water supply over a user claiming rights at a later time. All natural water flowing in streams and water courses in New Mexico is considered to be public and subject to appropriation for beneficial use. Beneficial use is the basis, measure, and limit of the right to use water. No water right, therefore, may be granted or claimed for more than the amount that can be beneficially used. DOE owns combined surface and groundwater rights. These rights include the withdrawal of 5,541.3 acre-ft/yr from a variety of wells and surface diversions under licenses RG-485 through RG-488, 1503, 1802, and 1802-B. DOE also owns a contract for 1,200 acre-ft/yr (1,480 MLY) of San Juan/Chama Diversion water.

Groundwater . Groundwater in the LANL area exists in three modes--in shallow alluvium in canyons, perched groundwater and in the main aquifer. The main aquifer consists mostly of clastic sediments within the Santa Fe Group and the Puye Formation. Nearly all groundwater at LANL is obtained from deep wells that produce water from this aquifer. A minor amount of groundwater at LANL is obtained from springs. Most aquifers that lie beneath LANL, with the exception of perched zones, are considered Class II aquifers, having current sources of drinking water and other beneficial uses (DOE 1993j:4-77).

The Santa Fe Group consists of, in ascending order, the Tesuque Formation, Puye Conglomerate, and basaltic rocks of Chino Mesa. The Tesuque Formation contains thin, jointed, interbedded basalt flows that may yield large amounts of water. Some units have lower permeabilities that restrict the movement of water within the formation. The Puye Conglomerate overlies the Tesuque Formation and is highly permeable. When saturated, it yields large amounts of water to wells (LANL 1984a:3).

The depth to the top of the aquifer ranges from about 366 m (1,200 ft) on the west to about 183 m (600 ft) on the east (LANL 1984a:8). The total saturated thickness penetrated by production wells ranges up to approximately 518 m (1,700 ft). The most productive area lies in the central portion of the Pajarito Plateau and includes the Pajarito well field. The average drawdown for these wells is 12 m (39.4 ft). The rate of movement of water in the aquifer is approximately 12 to 29 m (39.4 to 95.1 ft) per year (LANL 1984a:7,8).

Groundwater Quality. Most of the wells in the Pajarito Plateau yield fresh water (total dissolved solids less than 500 mg/L), although some wells east of the site have a higher total dissolved solids content (1,000 mg/L or more). The primary, secondary, and radiochemical groundwater quality, as measured from wells and springs in the main aquifer were below the DOE derived concentration guides or the New Mexico standards applicable to a DOE drinking water system (DOE 1993j:4-77). As shown in table 4.6.2.4-2, all parameters were below the applicable water quality criteria or standard in the main aquifer in 1993.

Table 4.6.2.4-2.-- Groundwater Quality Monitoring at Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1993

Groundwater Availability and Use. LANL, the nearby communities of Los Alamos and White Rock, and Bandelier National Monument are entirely dependent on groundwater for their water supply. The water supply is primarily obtained from well fields. During 1993, total production from the wells for potable and nonpotable use was 5,519 MLY (1,458 MGY) (LANL 1995r:4). LANL's water system had an average demand equal to about 81 percent of its current allotment of 6,800 MLY (1,800 MGY).

Two new wells have been drilled recently at LANL, one of which began pumping in the summer of 1992. The new wells are expected to supplant the now abandoned Los Alamos field. Water is taken from depths of 245 to 550 m (804 to 1,805 ft).

Over the next 50 years, increases in water use may require one of the following: use of the 1,500 MLY (396 MGY) of San Juan-Chama water (releasing the water in exchange for excess pumping) and/or establishment of credit for return flow (DOE 1993j:4-79).

Based on No Action projections, the net growth in overall use is about 0.4 percent per year. Based on this growth rate, the present allotment would be fully used by about 2052. If San Juan-Chama water is added, the limit to the total available supply would be reached by about 2072.

4.6.2.5 Geology and Soils

Geology. LANL is located on the Pajarito Plateau. The surface of the plateau is dissected by deep, southeast-trending canyons separated by long, narrow mesas. The Pajarito Plateau is capped by the Bandelier Tuff, a geologic unit comprising a massive pumiceous tuff breccia of ash-flow origin and a succession of cliff-forming welded ash flows. The tuff is underlain by sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Santa Fe Group (LA DOE 1979a:3-9).

LANL lies within seismic Zone 2 (appendix figure A.1-1). The strongest earthquake in the last 100 years within an 80-km (50-mi) radius was estimated to have a magnitude of 5.5 to 6 and a modified Mercalli intensity of VII. Studies suggest that several faults have produced seismic events with a magnitude of 6.5 to 7.8 in the last 500,000 years (LANL 1987c:ix). LANL operates a seismic hazards program which monitors seismicity through a seismic network and conducts studies in paleoseismology. Major faults at LANL include the Pajarito, Rendija Canyon, and Guaje Mountain faults (figure 4.6.2.5-1). The Guaje Mountain fault had movement on it between 4,000 and 6,000 years ago. There is no evidence of movement along the Pajarito fault system during historical times (DOE 1995hh:4-19). The l00-year earthquake at Los Alamos is regarded as having a magnitude of 5, with an event of magnitude 7 being the maximum credible earthquake. These values are currently used in design considerations at LANL (LANL 1987c:43,53,54,58).

Geological concerns associated with the LANL area include potential downslope movements in association with regional seismic activity. Although isolated rockfalls commonly occur from the canyon rims, landslides are an unlikely hazard at Los Alamos because of the dry climate, deep water table, and the rock characteristics. Although the area has the potential for future volcanic eruptions, the periodicity and structural development of past eruptions indicate a very low probability of an event occurring within the next 1,000 years (LA DOE 1979a:3-17).

Soils. LANL is underlain by soil types varying in texture from clay and clay loam to gravel. Over 95 percent of the soils are developed on acidic volcanic rocks (LANL 1978a:6,7). Because of the topographic relief of the Pajarito Plateau, rock outcrops occur on greater than 50 percent of the site area.

Water and wind erosion of these soils varies from slight to severe depending on slope, soil grain size, amount of disturbance, and degree of protection. Shrink-swell potential ranges from low to high, correlating with the amount of swelling clays present (LANL 1978a:80). The soils are acceptable for standard construction techniques. No soils in Los Alamos County have been designated prime farmland or Soil of Statewide Importance for New Mexico.

4.6.2.6 Biotic Resources

The following section describes biotic resources at LANL including terrestrial resources, wetlands, aquatic resources, and threatened and endangered species. A list of threatened and endangered species that may exist on or near LANL is presented in appendix C.

Terrestrial Resources. LANL lies within the Colorado Plateau Province. Ecosystems within the laboratory site itself are quite diverse due partly to the 1,500-m (5,000-ft) elevational gradient from the Rio Grande on the southeastern boundary to the Jemez Mountains, 20 km (12.4 mi) to the west, and to the many canyons with abrupt slope changes that dissect the site. Only a small portion of the total land area at LANL has been developed. The remaining land has been classified into six major vegetative communities as shown in figure 4.6.2.6-1. Within LANL, the predominant community types are juniper grassland in the eastern one-third, pinyon-juniper in the central one-third, and ponderosa pine in the western one-third. The juniper-grassland community is found along the Rio Grande on the eastern border of the Pajarito plateau and extends upward on the south-facing sides of the canyons at 1,700 to 1,900 m (5,600 to 6,200 ft). The pinyon-juniper community, generally found in the 1,900- to 2,100-m (6,200- to 6,900-ft) elevation range, includes large portions of the mesa tops and north-facing slopes at the lower elevations. The ponderosa pine community is found in the western portion of the plateau and on mesa tops in the 2,100- to 2,300 m (6,900- to 7,500-ft) elevation range. Coniferous trees are the dominant vegetation in the LANL environs, with pinyon pine (Pinus edulis ) and one-seed juniper (Juniperus monosperma ) predominant below 2,100 m (6,900 ft), and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii ) predominant above that elevation (DOE 1995hh:4-39-4-42). Almost 350 vascular plant species have been found, or are likely to be found, on LANL (LA DOE 1979a:3-39).

Terrestrial animal species that can be found on or near LANL include 1 amphibian, 9 reptile, 189 bird, and 45 mammal species (LA DOE 1979a:3-46, C-1 to C-3). Undeveloped areas within LANL provide habitat for a diversity of terrestrial wildlife. Species lists have been compiled from observational data and published data, but the occurrence of some species has not been verified (LANL 1995i:f-1). Among vertebrates, the collared lizard (Crotaphytus collaris), eastern fence lizard (Sceloporus undulatus), and whiptail lizard (Cnemidophorus spp.) are some of the reptiles found at LANL. Typically, these are found at elevations between 1,910 and 2,134 m (6,265 and 7,000 ft). Bird species that nest in the area include the Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida), great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus), and red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) among the raptors, and Say's phoebe (Sayornis saya), lesser goldfinch (Carduelis psaltria), and American robin (Turdus migratorius) among other types. Overwintering species include the scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens), common raven (Corvus corax), and house finch (Carduelis mexicanus) (LANL 1992c; LANL 1995j).

Some of the larger mammals at LANL are the American black bear (Ursus americanus), coyote (Canis latrans), and raccoon (Procyon lotor), while the smaller species include the Mexican woodrat (Neotoma mexicana), deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), Abert's squirrel (Sciurus aberti), and mountain cottontail (Sylvilagus nuttalli) (LANL 1995i:4-42). The most important and prevalent big game species at LANL are mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus canadensis). LANL lands have traditionally been a transitional area for wintering elk and mule deer. More recently, these two species have been using LANL property on a year-round basis. Migratory birds and their nests and eggs are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. Eagles are similarly protected by the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act.

Throughout LANL's history, developments within various TAs have caused significant alterations in the terrain and the general landscape of the Pajarito Plateau. These alterations have resulted in significant changes in land use by most groups of wildlife species, particularly birds and larger mammals that have large seasonal and/or daily ranges. Certain projects required the segregation of large areas, such as mesa tops and, in some cases, project areas were secured by virtually impenetrable fences around their perimeters. These alterations have undoubtedly caused some species of wildlife, such as elk and deer, to alter their land use patterns by cutting off or altering seasonal and/or daily travel corridors to wintering areas, breeding habitat, foraging habitat, and bedding areas, as well as other necessary habitats.

In 1980, elk were primarily using the southwestern portion of LANL (LA NERP 1981a). In addition, critical calving areas and important high-use areas were identified, all of which were primarily in the west and southwest part of LANL. Since 1980, the number of elk using LANL lands increased significantly. Studies of elk conducted from 1991 to 1993 (LANL 1995i:4-43) revealed increased use of habitats north and northeast of previously documented high-use areas (LA NERP 1981a). There have also been recent concerns about increases in motor vehicle accidents involving elk and deer in the LANL area (LANL 1995i:4-43). In general, however, little is known of habitat use patterns, population trends, and characteristics of elk on the Pajarito Plateau.

The proposed NIF would be located within an undeveloped portion of TA-58 that contains ponderosa pine. Wildlife present in the area would include those species typical of this forest type. A herd of elk and signs of black bears have been identified in the general site area (appendix I).

Wetlands. National Wetland Inventory maps show that most LANL wetlands occur in canyons that drain to the Rio Grande. Wetlands are found in most of the canyons on the laboratory site including Pueblo, Los Alamos, Sandia, Mortendad, Pajarito, Water, Ancho, Chaquchi, and White Rock (Rio Grande) Canyons. Wetlands have also developed in the vicinity of outfalls from LANL facilities. Most wetlands are classified as riverine intermittent, meaning they may contain flowing water part of the year and may contain pooled water or be dry the remainder of the year. Palustrine emergent and/or scrub-shrub wetlands are also indicated in sections of Pueblo, Los Alamos, Sandia, Pajarito, and Ancho Canyons. Most of the riverine and Palustrine wetlands known to exist at LANL are designated as temporary or seasonal by the National Wetlands Inventory maps. No wetlands exist in the immediate NIF site area (appendix I; DOE 1995hh:4-43).

Aquatic Resources. Aquatic habitats at LANL are limited to the Rio Grande and several springs and intermittent streams in the canyons. Some of these habitats currently receive NPDES-permitted wastewater discharges. The springs and streams at LANL do not support fish; however, many other aquatic species thrive in these waters (DOE 1995hh:4-43). No aquatic resources exist in the immediate NIF site area (appendix I).

The Rio Grande is located along the southeastern property boundary and supports populations of common carp (Cyprinus Carpio ), chub (Cyprinidae ), white sucker (Catostomus commersoni ), and carpsucker (Carpiodes spp. ). Game fish inhabiting the Rio Grande in the vicinity of LANL include the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus ) and brown trout (Salmo trutta ).

Threatened and Endangered Species. Twenty Federal- or state-listed threatened, endangered, and other special status species may be found on and in the vicinity of LANL (appendix table C-4). Four of these species have been observed on LANL. The Federal-listed species recorded onsite include the Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida), which has recently been observed nesting near TA-15 (two young were fledged from this nest during the 1995 breeding season) (DOE 1995hh:4-45), the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) , which winters along the Rio Grand River, and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) , which historically nested onsite and occasionally still forages there. The state-threatened Jemez Mountain salamander (Plethodon neomexicanus) has also been observed onsite. LANL canyons provide suitable nesting, roosting, and foraging habitats for the Mexican spotted owl. No critical habitat for threatened or endangered species, as defined in the Endangered Species Act (50 CFR 17.11; 50 CFR 17.12), exists on LANL; however, critical habitat for the Mexican spotted owl has been designated in areas bordering the northern and western boundaries of LANL (60 FR 29914).

Suitable habitat exists within the proposed NIF location that could attract several of the special status species that potentially occur on LANL. These species include the Mexican spotted owl, gray vireo (Vireo vicinior) , southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus) , spotted bat (Euderma maculatum) , New Mexican meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius luteus) , and plant species such as giant helleborine orchid. Site-specific surveys would be required to verify the occurrence of these or any other sensitive species.

4.6.2.7 Cultural and Paleontological Resources

Prehistoric Resources. Prehistoric site types identified in the vicinity of LANL include large multiroom pueblos, field houses, talus houses, shrines, rock shelters, animal traps, hunting blinds, water control features, agricultural fields and terraces, quarries, rock art, trails, campsites, windbreaks, rock rings, and limited activity sites. Approximately 75 percent of LANL has been inventoried for cultural resources. Coverage for many inventories has been less than 100 percent; however, approximately 60 percent of LANL has received 100-percent coverage. More than 1,300 prehistoric sites have been recorded at LANL, and approximately 95 percent of these sites are considered eligible or potentially eligible for the NRHP. Two areas in the vicinity of LANL have been established as NRHP sites or districts: Bandelier National Monument (named as a monument in 1916) and Puye Cliffs Historical Ruins.

The 11 TAs potentially affected by project alternatives are shown in figure 4.6-2. Of these areas, all of TA-35 has been surveyed, while the other TAs have been partially surveyed. NRHP-eligible prehistoric resources have been identified in TAs -3, -8, -9, -16, -28, -37, -50, and -54 (LANL 1996e:1). New facility construction would occur only in TA-58, one third of which has been surveyed. The survey of TA-58 located no prehistoric resources. The unsurveyed two thirds of TA-58 may contain prehistoric resources. Prehistoric resources also may occur in areas needed for construction laydown, materials storage, and parking.

Historic Resources. Historic resources consist of homesteads, corrals, ditches, trash scatters, roads and trails, railroads, ranches, mines, remains of commercial ventures, and buildings associated with the Manhattan Project and the Cold War era. More than 80 historic resources have been recorded at LANL, and about 90 percent of the resources are considered eligible or potentially eligible for the NRHP.

The existing LANL facilities have been extensively modified and refurbished since 1943 when major construction occurred after World War II. The existing facilities are not likely to be considered NRHP eligible because they lack architectural integrity and may not be representative of a particular style. However, some of the facilities may be NRHP eligible based on their association with the broad historic theme of the Manhattan Project and initial nuclear production.

Portions of the proposed TA project areas have been surveyed. NRHP-eligible buildings exist in TAs -3, -8, -9, -16 (74 individual buildings); TA-22 (TA-22-1); TA-28; and TA-55. Structures at the front and back gates are also eligible for the NRHP. Additional NRHP-eligible historic resources may exist in other involved TAs. Some of the buildings requiring modification under the proposed alternatives may potentially be NRHP eligible.

Native American Resources. Native Americans in the area with concerns include the six Tewa-speaking Pueblos of the northern Rio Grande Valley (San Ildefonso, San Juan, Santa Clara, Nambe, Tesuque, and Pojoaque) and the Cochiti and Jemez Pueblos.

Cultural resources are of special importance to Native Americans. These resources located on the LANL site may consist of prehistoric sites with ceremonial features such as kivas, village shrines, petroglyphs, or burials, or traditional cultural properties with no observable manmade features. Consultations with local Native Americans to identify any such cultural resources have been conducted in the past and are ongoing. An ethnographic study is currently being conducted to identify traditional cultural properties in the area as part of the LANL site-wide EIS.

Paleontological Resources. Pajarito Plateau consists primarily of Pleistocene volcanic tuffs and compacted pumice and ashfalls of the Bandelier Formation. None of the formations within LANL are known to be fossiliferous.

4.6.2.8 Socioeconomics

Socioeconomic characteristics addressed at LANL include employment and regional economy, population and housing, and public finance. Statistics for employment and local economy are based on the regional economic area that encompasses seven counties in New Mexico around LANL. Statistics for population and housing, and public finance are presented for the ROI, a three-county area in which 88.1 percent of all LANL employees reside: Los Alamos County (48.3 percent), Rio Arriba County (20.8 percent), and Santa Fe County (19.0 percent) (appendix table D.1-5). More than half of the Los Alamos County employees reside in the unincorporated communities of Los Alamos and White Rock. Figure 4.6.2.8-1 presents a map of the counties and selected cities composing the LANL regional economic area and ROI. Supporting data is presented in appendix D.

Regional Economy Characteristics. Selected employment and regional economy statistics for the LANL regional economic area are summarized in figure 4.6.2.8-2. Between 1980 and 1990, the civilian labor force in the regional economic area increased from 74,759 to 100,257, a 34-percent increase (annual average increase of 3.4 percent). In 1994 unemployment in the regional economic area was 6.2 percent compared to 6.3 percent for New Mexico. The region's per capita income of $17,689 in 1993 was approximately 8.2 percent higher than New Mexico's per capita income of $16,346.

As shown in figure 4.6.2.8-2, the regional economic area and New Mexico have similar employment patterns. The service sector accounts for the largest share of total employment in both the region (31 percent) and in New Mexico (28 percent). Manufacturing employment accounted for 4 percent of the total regional employment but 6 percent of the total state employment.

Population and Housing. Between 1980 and 1992, the ROI population grew from 122,241 to 158,249, an increase of 29.5 percent (annual average increase of 2.5 percent). Within the ROI, however, Santa Fe County, increased by 39.6 percent (annual average increase of 3.3 percent). Population growth in Los Alamos was nearly stagnant during the same period. The unincorporated communities of Los Alamos and White Rock in Los Alamos County are included in the county population and housing analysis.

The number of housing units increased from 46,006 in 1980 to 63,386 units in 1990; an increase of 37.8 percent (annual average increase of 3.8 percent). The 1990 homeowner vacancy rate in the ROI was 2.3 percent. The rental vacancy rate for the ROI counties was 7.7 percent. Population and housing trends are summarized in figure 4.6.2.8-3.

Public Finance. Financial characteristics of the local jurisdictions in the LANL ROI that are most likely to be affected by the proposed action are presented in this section. The data reflect total revenues and expenditures of each jurisdiction's general fund, special revenue funds, and, as applicable, debt service, capital project, and expendable trust funds. School district boundaries may or may not coincide with county or city boundaries, but the districts are presented under the county where they primarily provide services. Major revenue and expenditure categories for counties, cities, and school districts are presented in appendix tables D.2.3-8 and D.2.3-9. Figure 4.6.2.8-4 summarizes 1994 local governments' revenues and expenditures. Fund balances, which are dollars carried over from previous years, are not included in figure 4.6.2.8-4. All jurisdictions assessed had positive fund balances.

4.6.2.9 Radiation and Hazardous Chemical Environment

The following section provides a description of the radiation and hazardous chemical environment at LANL. Also included are descriptions of health effects studies, a brief accident history, and emergency preparedness considerations.

Radiation Environment. Major sources of background radiation exposure to individuals in the vicinity of LANL are shown in table 4.6.2.9-1. All annual doses to individuals from background radiation are expected to remain constant over time. The total dose to the population changes as the population size changes. Background radiation doses are unrelated to LANL operations.

Releases of radionuclides to the environment from LANL operations provide another source of radiation exposure to individuals in the vicinity of LANL. The radionuclides and quantities released from LANL operations in 1993 are listed in Environmental Surveillance at Los Alamos During 1993 (LA-12973-ENV). The doses to the public resulting from these releases and direct radiation are presented in table 4.6.2.9-2. These doses fall within regulatory limits (DOE Order 5400.5) and are small in comparison to background radiation. The releases were used in the development of the reference environment's (No Action) radiological releases in 2005.

Based on a dose-to-risk conversion factor of 500 cancer deaths per 1 million person-rem (5x10^-4 fatal cancers person-rem) to the public (appendix E), the fatal cancer risk to the maximally exposed member of the public due to radiological releases from LANL operations in 1993 is estimated to be 3.3x10^-6 . That is, the estimated probability of this person dying of cancer at some point in the future from radiation exposure associated with 1 year of LANL operations is about 3 chances in 1 million. (Note that it takes several to many years from the exposure to radiation for a cancer to manifest itself).

Based on the same conversion factor, 1.5x10^-3 excess fatal cancers were estimated from normal operation in 1993 to the population living within 80 km (50 mi) of LANL. The 1990 mortality rate, associated with cancer, for the entire U.S. population was 0.2 percent per year (Almanac 1993a:839). Based on the national rate, the number of fatal cancers expected during 1990 in the population living within 80 km (50 mi) of LANL was 438. This number of expected fatal cancers is much higher than the estimated 1.5x10^-3 fatal cancers that could result from LANL operations in 1993.

Table 4.6.2.9-1.-- Sources of Radiation Exposure to Individuals in the Vicinity, Unrelated to Los Alamos National Laboratory Operations

Table 4.6.2.9-2.-- Doses to the General Public from Normal Operation at Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1993 (Committed Effective Dose Equivalent)

Workers at LANL receive the same dose as the general public from background radiation, but also receive an additional dose from working in the facilities. Table 4.6.2.9-3 includes the average, maximum, and total occupational doses to LANL workers from operations in 1992. Except for the dose of less than 7,000 mrem to one worker, all other doses fall within regulatory limits (10 CFR 835). Based on a dose-to-risk conversion factor of 400 fatal cancers per 1 million person-rem (4x10-4 fatal cancers per person-rem) among workers (appendix E), the number of excess fatal cancers to LANL workers from operations in 1992 is estimated to be 0.077.

Table 4.6.2.9-3.-- Doses to the Onsite Worker from Normal Operation at Los Alamos National Laboratory, 1992

A more detailed presentation of the radiation environment, including background exposures and radiological releases and doses, is presented in Environmental Surveillance at Los Alamos During 1993 (LA-12973-ENV). In addition, the concentrations of radioactivity in various environmental media (e.g., air, water, and soil) in the onsite and offsite regions are presented in the same reference.

Chemical Environment. The background chemical environment important to human health consists of the atmosphere, which may contain hazardous chemicals that can be inhaled; drinking water, which may contain hazardous chemicals that can be ingested; and other environmental media with which people may come in contact (e.g., soil through direct contact or via the food pathway). The baseline data for assessing potential health impacts from the chemical environment are those presented in previous sections of this PEIS, particularly sections 4.6.2.3 on air quality and 4.6.2.4 on surface and groundwater quality.

Adverse impacts to the public can be minimized through administrative and design controls to decrease hazardous chemical releases to the environment and to achieve compliance with permit requirements. The effectiveness of these controls is verified through the use of monitoring information and inspection of mitigation measures. Health impacts to the public may occur during normal operation at LANL via inhalation of air containing hazardous chemicals released to the atmosphere from LANL operations. Risks to public health from ingestion of contaminated drinking water or direct exposure are also potential pathways.

Baseline air emission concentrations for hazardous air pollutants and their applicable standards are presented in section 4.6.2.3. These concentrations are estimates of the highest existing offsite concentrations and represent the highest concentrations to which members of the public could be exposed. These concentrations are compared with applicable guidelines and regulations. Information about estimating health impacts from hazardous chemicals is presented in appendix E.

Exposure pathways to LANL workers during normal operation may include inhaling the workplace atmosphere, drinking LANL potable water, and possible other contact with hazardous materials associated with work assignments. The potential for health impacts varies from facility to facility and from worker to worker, and available information is not sufficient to allow a meaningful estimation and summation of these impacts. However, workers are protected from hazards specific to the workplace through appropriate training, protective equipment, monitoring, and management controls. LANL workers are also protected by adherence to OSHA and EPA occupational standards that limit workplace atmospheric and drinking water concentrations of potentially hazardous chemicals. Appropriate monitoring, which reflects the frequency and amounts of chemicals utilized in the operation processes, ensures that these standards are not exceeded. Additionally, DOE requirements ensure that conditions in the workplace are as free as possible from recognized hazards that cause or are likely to cause illness or physical harm.

Health Effects Studies. Recent epidemiological studies have been conducted in the LANL area. One study, by Athas and Key (NM DOH 1993a), reported elevations in brain cancer incidence during the mid- to late-1980s, compared to state and national reference populations, but random fluctuation could not be ruled out. Breast cancer incidence rates in Los Alamos from 1970 to 1990 have remained level, but higher than New Mexico rates. Reproductive and demographic factors known to increase the risk of breast cancer have been prevalent in the county. Ovarian cancer incidence in the county from 1986 to 1990 was approximately two-fold greater than that observed in a New Mexico State reference population. In the mid- to late-1980s, a two-fold excess risk of melanoma was observed in Los Alamos County compared with a New Mexico State Reference population. A more recent study by Athas (NM DOH 1996a) observed a four-fold increase in thyroid cancer incidence during the late 1980s and early 1990s compared with the state as a whole, but the rate began to decline in 1994 and 1995. No statistically significant excess cancers were reported for male workers exposed to plutonium. However, statistically significant excesses in kidney cancer and lymphomatic leukemia were observed in male workers exposed to external radiation (HP 1994a: 577-588). An excess of death from suicides was reported among female radiation workers (LA Wiggs1987a). For a more detailed description of the studies reviewed and the findings, refer to appendix section E.4.7.

Accident History. A review of recent LANL annual environmental and accident reports indicates that there have been no significant adverse impacts to workers, the public, or the environment. This review was performed to provide an indication of the site's accident history. During the review period, from 1986 to 1990, site operations were much higher than in previous years and also higher than what is anticipated for the future.

Emergency Preparedness. Each DOE site has established an emergency management program that would be activated in the event of an accident. This program has been developed and maintained to ensure adequate response for most accident conditions and to provide response efforts for accidents not specifically considered. The emergency management program incorporates activities associated with emergency planning, preparedness, and response. The LANL Emergency Preparedness Plan is designed to minimize or mitigate the impact of any emergency upon the health and safety of employees and the public.

4.6.2.10 Waste Management

This section outlines the major environmental regulatory structure and waste management activities for LANL. A more detailed discussion of the ongoing waste management operation and the regulatory setting is provided in appendix section H.2.5.

DOE is working with Federal and state regulatory authorities to address compliance and cleanup obligations arising from its past operation of LANL and is engaged in several activities to bring its current operations into full regulatory compliance. These activities are set forth in permits and negotiated agreements that contain schedules for achieving compliance with applicable requirements and financial penalties for nonachievement of agreed upon milestones. These agreements have been reviewed to assure the proposed actions are allowable under the terms of these agreements.

LANL is not listed on the NPL. As a function of obtaining a RCRA permit, however, the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 mandate that permits for treatment, storage, and disposal facilities include provisions for corrective action to mitigate releases from solid and hazardous waste facilities in operation and to clean up contamination in areas designated as solid waste management units at LANL. By the end of 1995, over 60 of the approximately 2,100 potential release sites identified had been remediated, no further action was proposed for 575 sites, and 1,100 sites were slated for investigation or cleanup; for the remaining sites, action is still pending. All cleanup activities are expected to be completed by 2010 (LANL 1996e:1).

Through its research activities, LANL manages a small quantity of spent nuclear fuel and five broad waste categories: TRU, low-level, mixed, hazardous, and nonhazardous wastes. Because there is no spent nuclear fuel or HLW associated with any of the proposed activities at LANL, there is no discussion in this PEIS of spent nuclear fuel or HLW generation and management at LANL. A discussion of the waste management activities associated with each of these categories follows.

Transuranic Waste. In 1993, LANL generated approximately 54 m³ (70 yd³ ) of TRU waste (LANL 1994b:6). The Plutonium Facility (TA-55) is the principal generator of liquid TRU waste at LANL. Process acidic and caustic wastewaters, evaporator distillates from the nitrate recovery area, cooling water from glove boxes, and wet vacuum seal water are the principal sources. Sludges that remain after treatment through filtration and residual evaporator bottoms are loaded into 208-L (55-gal) drums, solidified, and transported to Area G for storage. The liquid wastes remaining after filtration are transferred from TA-55 to the Radioactive Liquid Waste Treatment Facility (TA-50) by gravity drain in double-wall pipelines. After treatment at TA-50 involving sedimentation, clarification, and flocculation, the residual radioactive sludge is loaded into drums, solidified, and transported to Area G for storage. Most of LANL's TRU waste is currently stored on four asphalt pads. TRU wastes are currently being stored, until they can be shipped to WIPP if that facility can demonstrate compliance with the requirements of 40 CFR 191 and 40 CFR 268, or to another TRU waste disposal facility should WIPP prove unsatisfactory. Should additional treatment be necessary for disposal at WIPP, LANL would develop the appropriate treatment to meet the WIPP waste acceptance criteria and package the wastes in accordance with DOE, NRC, and DOT requirements for transport to WIPP for disposal. LANL is presently upgrading TRU waste storage facilities to comply with RCRA requirements under the terms of a consent order with the State of New Mexico.

LANL generates mixed TRU wastes. Newly generated mixed TRU wastes are identified, characterized, and stored in compliance with RCRA. In 1993, LANL generated approximately 255 m³ (334 yd³ ) of mixed TRU wastes (LANL 1994b:6). The Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992 requires DOE to provide specific information to EPA and the State of New Mexico on LANL's mixed TRU waste streams, treatment facilities, and technology development activities. This waste category covers a broad range of physical matrix categories for LANL. The Federal Facility Compliance Order for the Site Treatment Plan requires treatment of all mixed wastes not in compliance with the land disposal provisions of RCRA. This compliance order is the implementation of the Federal Facility Compliance Act at LANL. The WIPP waste acceptance criteria specifies limiting parameters for waste containers, waste form, waste packaging, accompanying data, and miscellaneous requirements for packaging and RCRA. It is anticipated that some technology required for additional treatment of TRU wastes to attain additional treatment standards can be adapted from the technologies that must be brought online for mixed LLW. If DOE is successful in obtaining a no-migration petition for the disposal of mixed TRU wastes at WIPP, adherence with treatment standards under the land disposal restrictions would not be required.

Low-Level Waste. Both liquid and solid LLW are generated and managed by LANL. In 1993, LANL generated approximately 21,400 m³ (5,653,000 gal) of liquid and 2,693 m³ (3,523 yd³ ) of solid LLW (LANL 1994b:6,9). Liquid LLW is generated from many areas throughout LANL: there are two wastewater treatment facilities used for treatment of aqueous LLW, one of which utilizes ion-exchange technology. As part of a new radioactive liquid waste treatment facility project, a facility for the solidification and subsequent volume reduction of the radioactive liquid waste treatment plant sludge containing plutonium, americium, and other radionuclides is proposed, but not funded at LANL.

Solid LLW is generated from many areas throughout LANL. Solid LLW such as paper, plastic, glassware, and rags are separated into compactible and noncompactible materials by the waste generators. Compactible bales are banded, wrapped and sealed in plastic, and moved to Area G for disposal in landfill pits, located at TA-54 (figure 4.6-2). LLW noncompactible items, such as large equipment and much of the D&D waste, generally are not packaged but delivered to the burial site in covered or enclosed vehicles. Continued construction at Area G is dependent on decisions made in conjunction with the LANL site-wide EIS being prepared by LANL.

Mixed Low-Level Waste. In 1993, LANL generated approximately 45 m³ (59 yd³ ) of mixed LLW (LANL 1994b:6). Mixed LLW includes solvents, pyrophoric substances, spray cans, scintillation vials, uranium-contaminated lithium hydride, miscellaneous reagent chemicals, vacuum pump oil contaminated with mercury, gas cylinders, and other contaminated material. It is stored at TA-54 Areas L and G. Currently, LANL does not dispose of mixed LLW. In accordance with the Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992, LANL has developed a site treatment plan which covers management of all mixed waste at LANL. The State of New Mexico Environment Department issued a Compliance Order in the Site Treatment Plan for Mixed Waste in October 1995. The compliance order addresses land disposal restricted mixed waste. For mixed waste with identified treatment technologies, the plan provides a schedule for submitting permit applications, entering into contracts, initiating construction, conducting systems testing, starting operations, and processing mixed wastes. For mixed waste without an identified treatment technology, the plan includes a schedule for identifying and developing technologies, identifying the funding requirements for research and development (R&D), submitting treatability study notifications, and submitting R&D permit applications.

Mixed waste treatment skids are being designed to treat onsite hazardous and mixed waste streams that are not amenable to offsite treatment. Examples of the waste streams potentially amenable to skid treatment are reactive metals, plating wastes, acids, bases, ignitable liquids, spent solvents, and decontamination debris. Not all of the technologies to be included have been chosen. The mixed waste treatment skids would be housed in an existing LANL structure. An environmental restoration high-energy plasma technology is being tested as a technique for total destruction of mixed LLW that has been treated to land disposal restrictions standards. This technique will allow LANL to stay in compliance with the Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992.

Hazardous Waste. LANL received a permit for treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste under RCRA in November 1989, and for the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 provisions from EPA on March 8, 1990. All hazardous waste treatment and storage facilities at LANL are either fully permitted or are operating under interim status, while other waste management facilities are being developed.

LANL produces a wide variety of hazardous wastes. In 1993, LANL generated approximately 84 t (93 tons) of RCRA-regulated, 460 t (507 tons) of state-regulated, and 124 t (137 tons) of TSCA-regulated solid hazardous wastes (LANL 1994b:6). Small volumes of almost all wastes listed under 40 CFR 261 are generated as a result of a wide variety of ongoing research. HE waste is generated during the processing and testing of various HE materials. All HE hazardous waste and potentially contaminated HE waste is picked up from the generating facility and treated by open detonation, open burning, or incineration at TAs -14, -15, -16, -36, and -39. Ash residue is then treated and, when its hazardous characteristic can be removed and it is determined that this residue does not contain radioactive constituents, it is disposed of onsite in the landfill, TA-54, Area J. The HE wastewater is treated by gravity settlement in a sump and discharged from NPDES-permitted outfalls. LANL is developing a HE wastewater treatment facility that will collect and treat these wastewaters with stepped filtration.

LANL does not landfill RCRA-hazardous waste onsite, but contracts with certified transporters to deliver hazardous waste to commercial offsite RCRA-permitted treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. Before waste is sent offsite, the potential treatment or disposal facility is inspected by LANL personnel. Operating records and permits are also reviewed. LANL has an EPA Letter of Authorization allowing disposal of solid PCB-contaminated articles at the TA-54, Area G landfill. Other PCB waste and liquid PCB-contaminated articles are sent offsite to TSCA-regulated disposal facilities. Asbestos mixed waste is buried at TA-54, Area G. Asbestos waste is shipped offsite to an approved disposal site in accordance with TSCA and NESHAP regulations. Infectious wastes are managed according to State of New Mexico regulations.

Nonhazardous Waste. In 1993, LANL generated 8,180 t (9,017 tons) of solid sanitary wastes (LANL 1994b:6). Solid sanitary wastes are generated routinely and include general facility refuse such as paper, cardboard, glass, wood, plastic, scrap, metal containers, dirt, and rubble. Solid sanitary wastes are segregated and recycled whenever possible. Trash is accumulated onsite in dumpsters, which are emptied on a regular basis by a commercial waste disposal firm and taken to the county sanitary landfill. The Los Alamos County landfill is located on property owned by DOE and is operated under a special-use permit. Approximately one-third of the solid sanitary waste disposed of at the county landfill originates from LANL. The Area J special waste landfill, which is operated by and is under the administrative control of LANL, receives only administratively controlled solid sanitary waste. Solid sanitary waste will be managed and disposed of at LANL until 2007, the year the existing sanitary landfill is expected to reach the end of its useful life. At that time, either a new landfill will have to be constructed or provisions made for offsite disposal.

LANL generates approximately 693,000 m³ (183,000,000 gal) of liquid sanitary waste (DOE 1993j:3-54). A new sanitary wastewater treatment plant and collection system to replace 7 existing wastewater treatment facilities and 30 existing septic tanks have been completed. The new treatment plant will enable reuse of the treated wastewater for nondrinking water uses such as cooling and irrigation. The plant and collection system is designed to meet the requirements of LANL's existing Federal Facility Compliance Agreement and is expected to meet all of LANL's needs for the next 20 years.

1 Federal standard.

2 No monitoring data available; baseline concentrations assumed less than applicable standard.

3 State standard. The conversion from ppm to m g/m3 for the ambient air quality standard is calculated with the corrections for temperature (530 °R) and pressure (elevation) 7,400 ft mean sea level.

4 It is assumed that all particulate matter concentrations are total suspended particulate concentrations.

5 Compounds listed are the major pollutants (11.34 kg/yr or more) of concern.

6 No standard. Source: 40 CFR 50; DOE 1995hh; LANL 1993b; LANL 1994a; NM EIB 1995a; NM EIB 1996a.

7 For comparison purposes only.

8 Mean of multiple samples.

9 Surface water is monitored at two location in Acid-Pueblo Canyon. The monitoring results presented are from Pueblo 3.

10 Two locations are normally monitored in Los Alamos Canyon; however, one location was dry at the time of sampling. Results are reported for location DPS-1.

11 Three locations are monitored in Sandia Canyon. The monitoring results presented are from the sampling location with the highest concentration of the given parameter.

12 Only one location in Mortandad Canyon is sampled (GS-1).

13 DOE Derived Concentration Guides for drinking water (DOE Order 5400.5). Values are based on a committed effective dose of 100 mrem per year; however, because the drinking water Maximum Contaminant Level is based on 4 mrem per year, the number listed is 4 percent of the Derived Concentration Guide. All concentrations of radionuclides are determined by subtracting the instrument background environmental level from the monitored concentrations. A negative or zero incremental concentration means that the concentration at the sampling location is equivalent to the environmental level and that there is no significant impact from the facility.

14 Proposed National Primary Drinking Water regulation (56 FR 33050).

15 National Secondary Drinking Water regulation (40 CFR 143).

16 National Primary Drinking Water regulation (40 CFR 141). NA - not applicable; N/A - not analyzed; radioactive counting uncertainties ( standard deviation) are shown in parentheses. Source: LANL 1995s.

17 All data come from groundwater from onsite stations. Samples were collected in 1993.

18 For comparison purposes only.

19 DOE Derived Concentration Guides for drinking water (DOE Order 5400.5). Values are based on a committed effective dose of 100 mrem per year. However, because the drinking water maximum contaminate level is based on 4 mrem per year, the number listed is 4 percent of the Derived Concentration Guide.

20 Proposed National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (56 FR 33050).

21 National Secondary Drinking Water regulation (40 CFR 143).

22 National Primary Drinking Water regulations (40 CFR 141). Well locations are shown in figure 4.6.2.4-1; Parentheses ( ) indicate standard error of the mean. Source: LANL 1995s.

23 LANL 1995s.

24 NCRP 1987a.

25 The standards for individuals are given in DOE Order 5400.5. As discussed in that order, the 10 mrem/yr limit for airborne emissions is required by the Clean Air Act, the 4 mrem/yr limit is required by the Safe Drinking Water Act, and the total dose of 100 mrem/yr is the limit from all pathways combined. The 100 person-rem value for the population is found in proposed 10 CFR 834 (58 FR 16268).

26 The actual dose values given in this column conservatively include all water pathways, not just the drinking water pathway.

27 In 1993, this population was approximately 219,000.

28 Although the maximally exposed individual receives a dose, no population groups are exposed to any liquid pathways

29 Obtained by dividing the population dose by the number of people living within 80 km (50 mi) of the site. Source: LANL 1995s.

30 10 CFR 835. DOE's goal is to maintain radiological exposure as low as reasonably achievable.

31 DOE 1993n:7; the number of badged workers in 1992 was approximately 5,700.

32 Only one worker exceeded the worker dose standard.